Markers for preeclampsia

ABSTRACT

This document provides methods and materials related to determining whether or not a pregnant mammal (e.g., a pregnant human) has preeclampsia. For example, methods and materials related to the use of urinary podocytes to determine whether or not a pregnant human has preeclampsia are provided.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No.14/733,521, filed Jun. 8, 2015 know U.S. Pat. No. 9,557,342), which is acontinuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/312,980 (Abandoned), filedJun. 24, 2014, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No.14/032,361 (Abandoned), filed Sep. 20, 2013, which is a continuation ofU.S. application Ser. No. 12/274,117 (Abandoned), filed Nov. 19, 2008,which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 12/137,350(Abandoned), filed Jun. 11, 2008, which claims the benefit of U.S.Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/943,242, filed Jun. 11, 2007. Thedisclosures of the prior applications are incorporated by reference inentirety.

STATEMENT AS TO FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH

This invention was made with government support under grant HD051714awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certainrights in the invention.

BACKGROUND

1. Technical Field

This document relates to methods and materials involved in determiningwhether or not a pregnant mammal has preeclampsia. For example, thisdocument provides methods and materials related to the use of urinarypodocytes and/or plasma microvesicles to determine whether or not apregnant mammal (e.g., a pregnant human) has preeclampsia.

2. Background Information

Preeclampsia is a pregnancy-specific disease that affects about 5percent of all pregnancies and remains a leading cause of both maternaland fetal morbidity and death worldwide. It is characterized byhypertension (blood pressure, ≧140/90 mm Hg) and proteinuria (≧300 mg ina 24-hour urine sample) that occur after 20 weeks of gestation.Proteinuria in preeclampsia is associated with characteristic renalpathologic changes of glomerular endotheliosis, which is considered tobe a hallmark of preeclampsia in humans.

SUMMARY

This document relates to methods and materials involved in determiningwhether or not a pregnant mammal has preeclampsia. For example, thisdocument provides methods and materials related to the use of urinarypodocytes and/or plasma microvesicles to determine whether or not apregnant mammal (e.g., a pregnant human) has preeclampsia. Identifyingpatients who have preeclampsia can allow such patients, who are at riskfor both maternal and fetal morbidity and death, to be treatedeffectively. In addition, identifying patients who do not havepreeclampsia can avoid unnecessary treatment and patient suffering. Asdescribed herein, the presence of urinary podocytes and/or plasmamicrovesicles can be used to identify pregnant humans as havingpreeclampsia.

In general, one aspect of this document features a method for assessinga pregnant mammal for preeclampsia. The method comprises, or consistsessentially of, determining whether or not a urine sample from themammal contains an elevated level of urinary podocytes, wherein thepresence of the elevated level indicates that the mammal haspreeclampsia. The mammal can be a human. The determining step cancomprise using an antibody to detect podocytes. The antibody can be ananti-podocin antibody. The antibody can be an anti-podocalyxin antibody.The antibody can be an anti-nephrin antibody. The antibody can be ananti-synaptopodin antibody. The method can comprise classifying themammal as having preeclampsia if the elevated level is present, andclassifying the mammal as not having preeclampsia if the elevated levelis not present. In general, one aspect of this document features amethod for assessing a pregnant mammal for preeclampsia. The methodcomprises, or consists essentially of, determining whether or not aplasma sample from the mammal contains an elevated level ofmicrovesicles expressing a VEGFR-1 polypeptide, and classifying themammal as having preeclampsia if the plasma contains the elevated level.The mammal can be a human. The determining step can comprise using flowcytometry. The determining step can comprise using an antibody to detectthe microvesicles. The antibody can be an anti-VEGFR-1 antibody. Themethod can comprise classifying the mammal as having preeclampsia if theelevated level is present, and can comprise classifying the mammal asnot having preeclampsia if the elevated level is not present.

In another aspect, this document features a method for assessing amammal for risk of developing a complication of preeclampsia. The methodcomprises, or consists essentially of, determining whether or not plasmafrom the mammal contains an elevated level of endothelium-derivedmicrovesicles and classifying the mammal as being at risk for developinga complication of preeclampsia. The determining step can comprise usingflow cytometry. The determining step can comprise using an antibody todetect the endothelium-derived microvesicles. The complication ofpreeclampsia can comprise HEELP syndrome. The method can compriseclassifying the mammal as being at risk of developing a complication ofpreeclampsia if the elevated level is present, and can compriseclassifying the mammal as not being at risk of developing a complicationof preeclampsia if the elevated level is not present.

In another aspect, this document features a method for assessing apregnant mammal for preeclampsia. The method comprises, or consistsessentially of, determining whether or not a urine sample from themammal contains an elevated level of urinary podocytes, wherein thepresence of the elevated level indicates that the mammal haspreeclampsia. The mammal can be a human. The determining step cancomprise using an antibody to detect podocytes. The antibody can be ananti-podocin antibody. The antibody can be an anti-podocalyxin antibody.The antibody can be an anti-nephrin antibody. The antibody can be ananti-synaptopodin antibody. The method can comprise classifying themammal as having preeclampsia if the elevated level is present, andclassifying the mammal as not having preeclampsia if the elevated levelis not present.

Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used hereinhave the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill inthe art to which this invention pertains. Although methods and materialssimilar or equivalent to those described herein can be used to practicethe invention, suitable methods and materials are described below. Allpublications, patent applications, patents, and other referencesmentioned herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety. Incase of conflict, the present specification, including definitions, willcontrol. In addition, the materials, methods, and examples areillustrative only and not intended to be limiting.

The details of one or more embodiments of the invention are set forth inthe accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features,objects, and advantages of the invention will be apparent from thedescription and drawings, and from the claims.

DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1A-1D contain photographs of urinary cells plated oncollagen-coated slides, cultured for 24 hours, and stained for podocin(FIG. 1A), podocalyxin (FIG. 1B), nephrin (FIG. 1C), and synaptopodin(FIG. 1D) immunoreactivity.

FIGS. 2A-2D contain graph plotting ROC curves for podocyturea asdetermined by staining for podocin (FIG. 2A), podocalyxin (FIG. 2B),nephrin (FIG. 2C), and synaptopodin (FIG. 2D) immunoreactivity.

FIGS. 3A-3D contain graphs plotting sFlt-1 (FIG. 3A; pg/mL), solubleendoglin (FIG. 3B; ng/mL), serum PIGF (FIG. 3C; pg/mL), and urine PIGF(FIG. 3D; adjusted for Mg creatinine) for normotensive and preeclampticpregnancies as a function of age. For normotensive pregnancies, opencircles indicate individual values with a trend regression line. Thedashed portion represents extrapolation. For preeclamptic pregnancies,values are stratified by intervals of gestational age in which datadistributions are summarized with box plots indicating median values andinter-quartile ranges.

FIGS. 4A-4D contain graphs plotting ROC curves for sFlt-1 (FIG. 4A),soluble endoglin (FIG. 4B), serum PIGF (FIG. 4C), and urine PIGF (FIG.4D).

FIGS. 5A-5D contain representative scatter plots obtained by FACSCanto™flow cytometry showing control gates of buffer withfluorescein-conjugated antibodies and calibration beads (size and TrueCount Beads™) in the absence of sample (FIG. 5A), gates derived fromadding a sample containing microvesicles to the buffer with fluoresceinconjugated antibodies and calibration beads (FIG. 5B), andrepresentative quadrants derived from the microvesicle gates shown inFIGS. 5A and 5B, respectively, with counts separated by antibodybinding, and quadrant 3 representing microvesicles (FIGS. 5C and 5D).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

This document provides methods and materials related to determiningwhether or not a pregnant mammal (e.g., a pregnant human) haspreeclampsia. For example, this document provides methods and materialsrelated to the use of urinary podocytes and/or plasma microvesicles todetermine whether or not a pregnant human has preeclampsia. As describedherein, if the level of urinary podocytes is elevated in a pregnantmammal, then the mammal can be classified as having preeclampsia. If thelevel of urinary podocytes is not elevated in a pregnant mammal, thenthe mammal can be classified as not having preeclampsia.

This document also provides methods and materials for usingmicrovesicles to determine whether or not a pregnant mammal haspreeclampsia. For example, a marker for preeclampsia can be an elevatedlevel of microvesicles positive for a vascular endothelial growthfactor/vascular permeability factor receptor-1 (VEGFR-1) polypeptide ina sample taken from a pregnant mammal. As disclosed herein, if the levelmicrovesicles expressing a VEGFR-1 polypeptide in a sample from apregnant mammal is elevated, then the mammal can be classified as havingpreeclampsia. If the level microvesicles expressing a VEGFR-1polypeptide is not elevated, then the mammal can be classified as nothaving preeclampsia.

Microvesicles, which circulate in the peripheral blood, are aheterogeneous population of spheres (vary in size from about 0.1 to 1.5μm) formed from intact phospholipid rich membranes. Typically, amicrovesicle contains at least half of the surface polypeptides,receptors, and lipids of their cells of origin. Microvesicles aredifferentiated from microparticles, the latter of which can refer tochemical particles or aggregates such as those formed from plasmalipoprotein or other chemicals. Micro-vesicles are smaller thanplatelets, which are typically between 2 and 2.5 μm in diameter, and aregenerated during cell activation and apoptosis induced by oxidativedamage, inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, thrombin, bacteriallipopolysaccharide, shear stress, and hypoxia.

Any appropriate type of sample can be used to evaluate the level ofmicrovesicles in a mammal including, without limitation, serum, blood,and plasma. In addition, any method can be used to obtain a sample. Forexample, a blood sample can be obtained by peripheral venipuncture. Onceobtained, a sample can be manipulated prior to measuring the level ofmicrovesicles. For example, a blood sample can be centrifuged toseparate serum and plasma, and the separated serum and plasma can beliquid frozen for future analysis. Once obtained, the sample can beanalyzed by flow cytometry based on size or using antibodies todetermine the total number of microvesicles, the level of microvesiclesof a particular cellular origin, or the level VEGFR-1 expressingmicrovescicles, present within a sample.

This document also provides methods and materials related to the use ofmicrovesicles to determine whether or not a pregnant mammal is at riskfor developing complications associated with preeclampsia (e.g., HEELPsyndrome). As described herein, if the level of endothelium-derivedmicrovesicles is elevated in a sample taken from a pregnant mammal, thenthe pregnant mammal can be classified as being at risk for developing acomplication of preeclampsia. If the level of endothelium-derivedmicrovesicles is not elevated in a sample taken from a pregnant mammal,then the pregnant mammal can be classified as not being at risk fordeveloping a complication of preeclampsia.

The methods and materials provided herein can be used to assess anypregnant mammal for preeclampsia, or a complication of preeclampsia. Forexample, a human, cat, dog, or horse can be assessed for preeclampsia.In some cases, a human pregnant for 18 to 36 weeks (e.g., between 18 and35 weeks, between 20 and 35 weeks, or between 20 and 30 weeks) can beassessed.

Any appropriate method can be used to determine the level of podocytes,or any fragment of podocytes, in a mammal's urine. For example, cellstaining techniques that include using antibodies that bind to podocytesor polypeptides expressed by podocytes can be used. Examples of suchantibodies include, without limitation, antibodies that have the abilityto bind podocin, podocalyxin, nephrin, synaptopodin, Neph1, GLEPP1, WT1,CD2AP, actin, actinin, cadherin, catenin, integrin, vinculin, talin,paxillin, and ZO-1.

Any appropriate method can be used to determine the presence ofmicrovesicles in a sample obtained from a pregnant mammal. In somecases, the methods and materials provided herein can be used to detectmicrovesicles generated in vivo from many cell types. For example, aFACSCanto™ (New fourth or fifth generation) machine with highsensitivity and six colors detectors can be used to detectmicrovesicles. In some cases, blood can be prepared for analysis asfollows. The sample can be centrifuged (e.g., 3000 g for 15 minutes).The resulting supernatant from this spin can be removed and re-spun(e.g., using the same speed and duration). The absence of platelets fromthe supernatant of the second spin can be validated by Coulter counter.This platelet free plasma can be centrifuged (e.g., 20,000 g for 30minutes), and the pellet can be washed (e.g., washed once withHEPES/Hanks buffer) and centrifuged (e.g., 20,000 g for 30 minutes) toprepare washed microvesicles. The supernatant can be discarded, and thepellet reconstituted with buffer (e.g., HEPES/Hanks buffer). Thesemicrovesicles can be stained to identify their cell of origin (allcells, not only platelets). Higher than 95% of microvesicles thatcirculate in the blood of healthy people can originate from platelets.Both buffers and antibodies can be filtered through 0.2 μm filters toremove contaminants before staining the isolated microvesicles. Thesignal to noise ratio can be high (e.g., 15-30,000 events:200-500events). Scanning and transmission electron microscopy and Cyto viva canbe used to verify the presence of microvesicles.

Any appropriate method can be used to determine the level ofmicrovesicles, present within a sample, that express, for example, amarker such as a VEGFR-1 polypeptide. For example, standards such asthose described herein (e.g., anti-VEGFR-1 antibodies) can be used toidentify and quantify microvesicles expressing of a VEGFR-1 polypeptidepresent within a sample. In some cases, the expression of a VEGFR-1polypeptide on particular microvesicles (e.g., platelet-derivedmicrovesicles, procoagulant microvesicles, or endothelium-derivedmicrovesicles) can be determined using antibodies as markers associatedwith particular cell types. In some cases, antibodies against themarkers set forth in Table 1 can be used to identify and quantifymicrovesicles of a particular cell origin that express VEGFR-1polypeptides using flow cytometry techniques. For example, anti-CD62ecan be used to identify endothelium-derived microvesicles present withina sample.

Any appropriate method can be used to determine the cellular origin ofmicrovesicles present within a sample. For example, standards such asthose described herein (e.g., beads of known size or cellular membraneantibodies) can be used to identify and quantify microvesicles presentwithin a sample. In some cases, the level of particular microvesicles(e.g., platelet-derived microvesicles, procoagulant microvesicles, orendothelium-derived microvesicles) can be determined using antibodies todetect markers associated with particular cell types. For example,antibodies against the markers set forth in Table 1 can be used toidentify and quantify particular microvesicles using flow cytometrytechniques. In some cases, anti-CD62e can be used to identifyendothelium-derived microvesicles present within a sample.

The term “elevated level” as used herein with respect to the level ofurinary podocytes is any level that is above a median urinary podocyteslevel in urine from a random population of pregnant mammals (e.g., arandom population of 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 100, or 500 pregnant mammals)lacking preeclampsia. In some cases, an elevated level of urinarypodocytes can be a detectable level of podocin-positive cells within aurine sample. The presence or absence of such a detectable level ofpodocin-positive cells can be determined using an anti-podocin antibody.

The term “elevated level” as used herein with respect to the levelmicrovesicles expressing a VEGFR-1 polypeptide is any level that isgreater than a control level of microvesicles expressing a VEGFR-1polypeptide associated with a sample of microvesicles from normal,healthy mammals lacking signs or symptoms of preeclampsia. In somecases, an elevated level of VEGFR-1 expressing microvesicles can be adetectable level. In some cases, an elevated level of VEGFR-1 expressingmicrovesicles can be any level that is greater than a reference levelfor an elevated level of VEGFR-1 expressing microvesicles. For example,a reference level of microvesicles expressing a VEGFR-1 polypeptide canbe the average level of microvesicles expressing a VEGFR-1 polypeptidethat is present in samples obtained from a random sampling of 50 healthypregnant mammals matched for age. It will be appreciated that levelsfrom comparable samples are used when determining whether or not aparticular level is an elevated level.

An elevated level of VEGFR-1 expressing microvesicles can be any levelprovided that the level is greater than a corresponding reference levelof VEGFR-1 expressing microvesicles. For example, an elevated level ofVEGFR-1 expressing microvesicles can be 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,10, 15, 20, or more times greater than the reference level VEGFR-1expressing microvesicles. In addition, a reference level can be anyamount. For example, a reference level for VEGFR-1 expressingmicrovesicles can be zero. In this case, any level of microvesiclesexpressing a VEGFR-1 polypeptide greater than zero would be an elevatedlevel.

The term “elevated level” as used herein with respect to the level ofendothelium-derived microvesicles is any level that is greater than acontrol endothelium-derived microvesicle level associated with mammalslacking signs or symptoms of preeclampsia, or a complication ofpreeclampsia. In some cases, an elevated level of endothelium-derivedmicrovesicles can be a detectable level. In some cases, an elevatedlevel of endothelium-derived microvesicles can be any level that isgreater than a reference level for endothelium-derived microvesicles.

The term “reference level” as used herein with respect to anendothelium-derived microvesicle level is the level ofendothelium-derived microvesicles typically found in healthy mammals,for example, mammals free of signs and symptoms of preeclampsia, orcomplications of preeclampsia. For example, a reference level ofendothelium-derived microvesicles can be the average level ofendothelium-derived microvesicles that is present in samples obtainedfrom a random sampling of 50 healthy pregnant mammals matched for age.It will be appreciated that levels from comparable samples are used whendetermining whether or not a particular level is an elevated level.

An elevated level of endothelium-derived microvesicles can be any levelprovided that the level is greater than a corresponding reference levelfor endothelium-derived microvesicles. For example, an elevated level ofendothelium-derived microvesicles can be 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,10, 15, 20, or more times greater than the reference level forendothelium-derived microvesicles. In addition, a reference level can beany amount. For example, a reference level for endothelium-derivedmicrovesicles can be zero. In this case, any level ofendothelium-derived microvesicles greater than zero would be an elevatedlevel.

TABLE 1 Markers for identifying the source of microvesicles.Cell-derived microvesicles Markers Procoagulant microvesicles Annexin-Vor thrombin generation assay Leukocytes-derived microvesicles CD45,CD11b Granulocytes-derived microvesicles CD33, CD15, CD11b; CD177 NKcells-derived microvesicles CD56 Monocytes-derived microvesicles CD14T-lymphocyte-derived microvesicles CD3 and CD134 B-lymphocyte-derivedmicrovesicles CD19 or CD20 Platelet-derived microvesicles CD41 or CD61or CD42a Endothelium-derived microvesicles CD62e, CD106, CD146Erythrocyte-derived microvesicles Glycophorin A

An antibody can be, without limitation, a polyclonal, monoclonal, human,humanized, chimeric, or single-chain antibody, or an antibody fragmenthaving binding activity, such as a Fab fragment, F(ab′) fragment, Fdfragment, fragment produced by a Fab expression library, fragmentcomprising a VL or VH domain, or epitope binding fragment of any of theabove. An antibody can be of any type (e.g., IgG, IgM, IgD, IgA or IgY),class (e.g., IgG1, IgG4, or IgA2), or subclass. In addition, an antibodycan be from any animal including birds and mammals. For example, anantibody can be a human, rabbit, sheep, or goat antibody. An antibodycan be naturally occurring, recombinant, or synthetic. Antibodies can begenerated and purified using any suitable methods known in the art. Forexample, monoclonal antibodies can be prepared using hybridoma,recombinant, or phage display technology, or a combination of suchtechniques. In some cases, antibody fragments can be producedsynthetically or recombinantly from a gene encoding the partial antibodysequence. An anti-podocin antibody can bind to podocin polypeptides atan affinity of at least 10⁴ mol⁻¹ (e.g., at least 10⁵, 10⁶, 10⁷, 10⁸,10⁹, 10¹⁰, 10¹¹, or 10¹² mol⁻¹).

Once the level of urinary podocytes, endothelium-derived microvesicles,or all microvesicles expressing a VEGFR-1 polypeptide in a sample from amammal is determined, then the level can be compared to a median levelor a cutoff level and used to evaluate the mammal for preeclampsia, orrisk of developing a complication of preeclampsia. A level of urinarypodocytes, VEGFR-1 expressing microvesicles, or endothelium-derivedmicrovesicles that is higher than the median level of urinary podocytes,VEGFR-1 expressing microvesicles, or endothelium-derived microvesiclesin samples taken from a population of mammals of the same species havingno preeclampsia (or a cutoff level) can indicate that the mammal haspreeclampsia, or at risk for developing a complication of preeclampsia.A level of urinary podocytes, VEGFR-1 expressing microvesicles, orendothelium-derived microvesicles that is lower than the median level ofurinary podocytes, VEGFR-1 expressing microvesicles, orendothelium-derived microvesicles in samples taken from a population ofmammals of the same species having no preeclampsia (or a cutoff level)can indicate that the mammal does not have preeclampsia, or is not arisk of developing a complication of preeclampsia. A cutoff level can beset to any level provided that the values greater than that levelcorrelate with an increased level of urinary podocytes, VEGFR-1expressing microvesicles, or endothelium-derived microvesiclesindicative of a mammal having preeclampsia. For example, a cutoff levelcan be equal to, or greater than 1 cell/mg creatinine.

In some cases, a pregnant mammal can be classified as havingpreeclampsia if it is determined that the podocyte level in a urinesample from the mammal is greater than the podocyte level in a urinesample obtained previously from that mammal. In some cases, a pregnantmammal can be classified as having preeclampsia if it is determined thatthe level of VEGFR-1 expressing microvesicles in a sample is greaterthan the level of VEGFR-1 expressing microvesicles in a sample obtainedpreviously from that mammal. In some cases, a pregnant mammal can beclassified as being at risk for developing a complication ofpreeclampsia if it is determined that the endothelium-derivedmicrovesicles level in a sample from the mammal is greater than theendothelium-derived microvesicles level in a urine sample obtainedpreviously from that mammal.

A mammal that has been or is being treated for preeclampsia can bemonitored using the methods and materials provided herein. For example,the level of podocytes, VEGFR-1 expressing microvesicles, orendothelium-derived microvesicles in a sample from a mammal beingtreated for preeclampsia can be assessed to determine whether or not themammal is responding to the treatment.

This document also provides methods and materials to assist medical orresearch professionals in determining whether or not a pregnant mammalhas preeclampsia. Medical professionals can be, for example, doctors,nurses, medical laboratory technologists, and pharmacists. Researchprofessionals can be, for example, principle investigators, researchtechnicians, postdoctoral trainees, and graduate students. Aprofessional can be assisted by (1) determining the level of urinarypodocytes in a urine sample, the level of endothelium-derivedmicrovesicles, or the level of VEGFR-1 expressing microvesicles, and (2)communicating information about the level to that professional.

Any appropriate method can be used to communicate information to anotherperson (e.g., a professional). For example, information can be givendirectly or indirectly to a professional. In addition, any type ofcommunication can be used to communicate the information. For example,mail, e-mail, telephone, and face-to-face interactions can be used. Theinformation also can be communicated to a professional by making thatinformation electronically available to the professional. For example,the information can be communicated to a professional by placing theinformation on a computer database such that the professional can accessthe information. In addition, the information can be communicated to ahospital, clinic, or research facility serving as an agent for theprofessional.

The invention will be further described in the following examples, whichdo not limit the scope of the invention described in the claims.

EXAMPLES Example 1—Urinary Podocyte Excretion as a Marker forPreeclampsia

An approved study was conducted with the consent of all included women.A diagnosis of preeclampsia was made in the presence of (a) hypertensionafter 20 weeks of gestation, which was defined as a blood pressure of≧140/90 mm Hg, (b) proteinuria, which was defined as ≧300 mg of proteinin a 24-hour urine specimen, and/or 1+(30 mg/L) dipstick urinalysis inthe absence of urinary tract infection and/or a predicted 24-hour urineprotein of ≧300 mg on a random urine collection, and (c) resolution ofhypertension and proteinuria by 12 weeks after delivery. Women withsevere forms of preeclampsia such as eclampsia and HELLP (hemolysis,elevated liver enzymes, low platelets) syndrome, the diagnosis of whichwas confirmed on the basis of previously published criteria (Jones,Hematopathol. Mol. Hematol., 11:147-71 (1998)), also were included.Healthy, normotensive pregnant women without hypertension andproteinuria served as control subjects. An additional control groupconsisted of women with hypertension and proteinuria.

A cross-sectional study was conducted, and blood and urine samples werecollected close to and typically ≦24 hours before delivery. In total, 67women were recruited. Preeclampsia was present in 33 of the patients,and HELLP was diagnosed in 11 patients; 23 normotensive pregnanciesserved as control subjects (Table 1). Blood samples were obtained in all67 women, and urine samples for podocyturia were collected in a subsetof 31 pregnant women (15 cases and 16 control subjects).

TABLE 1 Patient characteristics. Preeclampsia Preeclampsia + VariableNormal (n = 23) (n = 33) HELLP (n = 11) HELLP (n = 44) Maternal age (y)28.7 ± 5.4 26.2 ± 5.1  33.0 ± 6.0  27.9 ± 6.1  Gestational age 39.2 ±2.2 34.3 ± 3.8* 33.5 ± 5.6* 34.1 ± 4.2* (wk) Primiparous (%) 47.8 81.89.1 63.6 Systolic blood 110.5 ± 9.5    159 ± 19.8* 162.6 ± 23*   159.9 ±20.3* pressure (mm Hg) Diastolic blood 66.9 ± 9.8 97.8 ± 9.4*  98.3 ±10.6* 97.9 ± 9.6* pressure (mm Hg) Proteinuria (g/24  247 ± 294  2693 ±3164*  4373 ± 5962*  3113 ± 4032* hr) Platelet count 242,000 ± 35,519232,333 ± 66,787  100,273 ± 42,245* 199,318 ± 84,146  Data are given asmean ± SD. *P < .05, compared with normal group.Serum Studies

Blood samples for the determination of sFlt-1, free PlGF, and solubleendoglin levels were drawn within 24 hours before delivery. Serumcreatinine level, liver function tests, and platelet counts wereperformed according to standardized laboratory procedures. Serum levelsof sFlt-1, soluble endoglin, and free PlGF were measured with QuantikineELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) kits (R&D Systems,Minneapolis, Minn.).

Urine Chemistry

Concurrent with serum collection, clean-catch urine specimens (50-100mL) were obtained. Urine albumin, total protein, and creatinineconcentrations were measured by standard methods on a Hitachi 911Chemistry Analyzer (Roche Diagnostics, Indianapolis, Ind.). Urinary PlGFdeterminations were performed with the PlGF ELISA (enzyme linkedimmunosorbent assay) kit (R&D Systems).

Podocyturia

Random urine samples (25-50 mL each) were centrifuged for 8 minutes at700 g at room temperature. The pellets were rinsed twice with humandiploid fibroblast (HDF) solution. Next, the pellets were resuspended inDulbecco's modified eagle's medium (DMEM) F-12 medium with 10% fetalbovine serum that was supplemented with antibiotics for the preventionof bacterial contamination. One-milliliter aliquots were plated infour-chamber, collagen-coated tissue culture slides, which was followedby overnight incubation at 37° C. in 5% CO₂. The next day, the mediawere removed, followed by two phosphate-buffered saline solution washes.Slides were fixed with 1 mL of ice cold methanol for 10 minutes at −20°C. Each of the four slide chambers was incubated with one of fourdifferent antibodies to podocyte proteins:podocalyxin (dilution, 1:40),podocin (dilution, 1:200), nephrin (dilution, 1:100), and synaptopodin(undiluted). After being washed with phosphate-buffered saline solution,a secondary fluorescein isothiocyanate-labeled antibody was added at adilution of 1:40 for 30 minutes. The sediment was counterstained withHoechst nuclear stain to facilitate differentiation of whole cells fromcell fragments. Coverslips were mounted with Vectashield (Vector Labs,Burlington, Calif.), and the slides were viewed with a fluorescencemicroscope (Leica, Germany). Nucleated, positive-staining cells wereconsidered to be podocytes. A renal pathologist, who was blinded to theclinical diagnosis and laboratory findings, evaluated each sample todetermine the number of cells that were present and the percentage ofcells that were stained for podocyte markers. Podocyturia was expressedas a ratio of the number of podocytes to the creatinine content of therespective urine sample, which was performed for each of the fourpodocyte markers.

Statistical Methods

Descriptive statistics are reported for quantitative traits as means andSDs or as medians and interquartile ranges and for categoric traits aspercentages. The operating characteristics of podocyte and angiogenicmarkers of preeclampsia were assessed by consideration of the traiteither as a categoric measure (i.e., absence/presence) and estimation ofits sensitivity and specificity or by the consideration of it as aquantitative measure and the generation of the receiver-operatingcharacteristic (ROC) curve. The areas under the curve were estimatedwith confidence intervals and contrasted among markers with a methoddescribed elsewhere (DeLong et al., Biometrics, 44:837-45 (1988)). Allstatistical tests were carried out at the two-sided 0.05 significancelevel.

Podocyturia

In the women with urinary measures of podocyturia (i.e., 15 cases and 16control subjects), those women with preeclampsia or HELLP hadpodocin-positive cells in the urine (FIG. 1A), whereas none of thenormotensive control subjects had any podocin-positive cells. Thus, thesensitivity and specificity of podocyturia, as determined by thepodocin-positive cells, for the diagnosis of preeclampsia were both100%. A positive correlation between the degree of proteinuria andpodocyturia, as determined by podocin staining, was present (P=0.04).

Compared with podocin, measurements of podocyturia that were based onpodocalyxin, nephrin, and synaptopodin stains (FIGS. 1B, C, and D,respectively) had both lower sensitivity and specificity (Table 2). ForsFLT-1, endoglin, and PlGF, the sensitivity and specificity werecalculated twice, with two different cutoffs to define a positive test.The cutoffs for podocyturia (podocin, nephrin, podocalyxin, andsynaptopodin) were expressed as cells per milligram of creatinine (Table2). The ROC curves for all four podocyte markers were generated (FIG.2), and their respective areas under the curve were compared as ameasure of diagnostic accuracy.

TABLE 2 Test characteristics for markers of preeclampsia. Pretestprobability for preeclampsia 5% 25% Positive Negative Positive NegativeSensitivity Specificity predictive predictive predictive predictive TestCutoff (%) (%) value (%) value (%) value (%) value (%) sFLT-1* 7463pg/mL 83 58 9.4 98.5 39.7 91.1 9795 pg/mL 71 68 10.5 97.8 42.5 87.6Endoglin* 21.3 ng/mL 94 58 10.5 99.5 42.7 96.7 24.6 ng/mL 86 63 10.998.8 43.7 93.1 Serum PlGF† 84.92 pg/mL 74 58 8.5 97.7 37.0 87.0 102.7pg/mL 86 47 7.9 98.5 35.1 91.0 Urine PlGF† 1.22 pg/mL‡ 79 50 7.7 97.834.5 87.7 2.18 pg/mL† 86 38 7.5 98.4 33.9 90.4 Podocin* 0.85 cells† 100100 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Nephrin* 0.75 cells† 93 75 16.4 99.5 55.497.0 Podocalyxin* 0.83 cells† 93 75 16.4 99.5 55.4 97.0 Synaptopodin*1.11 cells† 93 81 20.5 99.5 62.0 97.2 *A positive test is defined ashaving a value higher than the cutoff. †A positive test has a lowervalue than the cutoff. ‡Expressed per milligram of creatinine in therespective urine samples

The analysis indicated that podocin had a greater diagnostic accuracythan did podocalyxin (P=0.04) or nephrin (P=0.05) and possibly betterthan did synaptopodin (P=0.08); diagnostic accuracy of the other threemarkers (podocalyxin, nephrin, and synaptopodin) did not differ. For thecases, the rate of podocyte excretion, which was expressed as mediancell number per milligram of creatinine, was 3.7 for podocin andsynaptopodin, 5.0 for podocalyxin, and 3.3 for nephrin. For the controlsubjects, the rate of podocyte excretion for synaptopodin was 0.6, and 0for podocalyxin, podocin, and nephrin. An additional control groupconsisted of women with gestational hypertension (n=6), essentialhypertension (n=2), and preexisting proteinuria (n=3), who did not haveclinical signs and symptoms of superimposed preeclampsia. None of these11 women demonstrated podocyturia, as determined by podocin staining.

Angiogenic Markers of Preeclampsia

Serum sFlt-1 levels were significantly higher in women with preeclampsiaor HELLP than in normotensive pregnant control subjects (17,326±12,124pg/mL vs. 8,160±5,186 pg/mL; P<0.001; Table 3). SerumsFlt-1 levels didnot differ significantly between patients with preeclampsia and HELLP(P=0.11). Patients with preeclampsia and HELLP displayed higher sFlt-1levels than normal patients, if they delivered early in pregnancy (FIG.3A). This difference became less apparent closer to full term delivery.

TABLE 3 Normal and preeclamptic levels of sFLT-1, endoglin, and PlGF.Normal Preeclampsia Preeclampsia + Variable (n = 23) (n = 33) HELLP (n =11) HELLP (n = 44) sFLT-1 (pg/mL) 8160 ± 5186 18,231 ± 11,216* 14,711 ±14,876* 17,326 ± 12,124* Endoglin (ng/mL) 27.2 ± 23.9 56.5 ± 31.7* 52.1± 32.7* 55.4 ± 31.6* Serum PlGF (pg/mL) 173 ± 175 66.2 ± 44.2* 59.8 ±48.5* 64.6 ± 44.7* Urine PlGF (pg/mL 2.94 ± 3.56 1.17 ± 1.54  † † per mgcreatinine) Data are given as mean ± SD. * P < 0.05, compared withnormal group. † None of the 11 patients with HELLP had urine samples.

Serum soluble endoglin levels were significantly higher in women withpreeclampsia or HELLP than in normotensive pregnant control subjects(55.4±31.6 ng/mL vs. 27.2±23.9 ng/mL; P<0.001). Serum soluble endoglinlevels did not differ significantly between patients with preeclampsiaand HELLP (P=0.69). The difference between normal and preeclampticpregnancies was greater with an earlier delivery and became lessapparent in those patients who were delivered at full term (FIG. 3B).

Serum-free PlGF levels were lower in women with preeclampsia or HELLPthan in normotensive pregnant control subjects (64.6±44.7 pg/mL vs.173±174.8 pg/mL; P=0.0005). Serum-free PlGF levels did not differsignificantly between patients with preeclampsia and HELLP (P=0.36). Inthose patients delivering at an earlier gestational age, free PlGFlevels were lower in patients with preeclampsia and HELLP vs. controlsubjects, but this difference became less apparent as pregnancies werecarried towards full term (FIG. 3C).

There was a statistically insignificant trend towards lower urine PlGFlevels in women with preeclampsia or HELLP, compared with normotensivepregnant control subjects (1.17±1.54 pg/mL/mg vs. 2.94±3.56 pg/mL/mgcreatinine; P=0.11; Table 3). Urine PlGF levels in women withpreeclampsia were not different than in normal women, regardless ofgestational age at delivery (FIG. 3D).

Angiogenic Factors as Diagnostic Tests for Preeclampsia: Comparison toPodocyturia

ROC curves were generated for sFlt-1, soluble endoglin, and both serumand urine PlGF (FIG. 4). The positive predictive value and the negativepredictive value for podocyturia, as determined by the fourpodocyte-specific markers and the angiogenic factors that were evaluated(Table 2), were calculated. Because the value of a diagnostic test candepend on the pretest probability of disease, the diagnostic accuracy ofeach test was estimated for two different pretest probabilities: 5%,which reflects the pretest probability for preeclampsia in the generalpopulation, and 25%, which is a commonly cited percentage risk in womenwith preexisting hypertension. The negative predictive value did notdiffer between the podocyturia and angiogenic factor tests in patientswith a low (5%) pretest probability. However, in patients with a pretestprobability of 25%, the negative predictive value was higher withpodocyturia. The positive predictive value was higher with podocyturia,compared with angiogenic factors tests in both the low and high pretestprobability groups.

The results provided herein demonstrate that podocyturia (i.e., urinaryexcretion of podocytes) is present in patients with preeclampsia at thetime of delivery. These cells retain the ability to attach to tissueculture plates in vitro, which indicates that they are viable. Urinaryshedding of podocytes may contribute to proteinuria in preeclampsia,because these cells have a very limited regenerative capacity.Therefore, podocyturia may indicate podocyte loss from the glomeruluswhich may lead to a disruption of the glomerular filtration barrier andconsequent proteinuria.

Podocyturia is present at the time of the clinical diagnosis ofpreeclampsia, and the number of podocytes can correlate with the degreeof proteinuria. Urinary podocyte excretion, which was quantified by fourpodocyte-specific markers (namely, podocalyxin, podocin, nephrin, andsynaptopodin), is a sensitive marker of renal damage and proteinuria inpreeclampsia. Among these four markers, podocin exhibited a highsensitivity and specificity of 100% each. In addition, a positivecorrelation between the degree of proteinuria and podocyturia was found,which suggests a possible common/shared underlying pathogenic mechanism.Women with normotensive pregnancies and women with either hypertensionor proteinuria, but in the absence of the clinical syndrome ofpreeclampsia, did not have podocyturia. Therefore, podocyturia does notappear to be merely a result of hypertensive kidney damage or a markerof proteinuria.

There are several possible explanations for podocin being a bettermarker for podocyturia in preeclampsia than podocalyxin, nephrin, orsynaptopodin. Staining for podocalyxin, nephrin, and synaptopodin may beless specific, because these proteins, unlike podocin, are expressed incells other than podocytes. These cells might be present in the urineparticularly around the time of delivery, when urine samples can becontaminated with decidual, amniotic, and red and white blood cells.Moreover, staining for podocin may be more sensitive than staining forother podocyte proteins. Glomerular expression of nephrin andsynaptopodin, but not podocin, was found to be decreased in kidneysections from women with preeclampsia. Consequently, podocytes that areshed in the urine may have lower expressions of nephrin and synaptopodinthan podocin, which makes the latter a more sensitive marker of podocytepresence in the urine. It is particularly intriguing to postulate thatpodocyturia, as a marker of subclinical renal damage, may be detectedbefore overt proteinuria and the full clinical picture of preeclampsiadevelops.

The results provided herein demonstrate that differences in sFlt-1,PlGF, and soluble endoglin levels between normotensive and preeclampticpregnancies were greatest in those women who delivered earliest. Earlydelivery was a marker of severe disease that resulted in termination ofpregnancy. These differences become less apparent as pregnancies arecarried toward full term. There is a significant overlap in free PlGFand sFlt-1 values between mild forms of preeclampsia and normotensivepregnancies closer to full term, which could lead potentially to bothfalse-positive and false-negative screening test results. In addition,no difference in urinary PlGF was observed between the cases (n=15) andcontrol subjects (n=16), and no significant difference in circulatingendoglin levels was observed between the cases of preeclampsia (n=33)and HELLP (n=11).

In summary, the results provided herein indicated that podocyturia is amarker of renal damage and proteinuria in preeclampsia.

Example 2—Detecting Levels of Microvesicles Expressing VEGFR-1

Blood and urine samples were collected from 8 preeclamptic women and 15normal pregnant women just prior to delivery (IRB #166-00). The patientcharacteristics are provided in Table 4.

TABLE 4 Baseline patient characteristics Normal pregnancy PreeclampsiaVariable (n = 15) (n = 8) Age (yrs)—mean (range) 29.0 (19-40) 27.3(21-38) Gestational age* (wks)—mean 38.9 (36-41) 31.1 (27-34) (range)MAP (mm Hg)—mean (range) 80.5 (74-88) 108.3 (75-127) *At time ofenrollmentIsolation of Blood Microvesicles

Blood was drawn through a 19 gauge needle into tubes containinganticoagulants, hirudin and soybean trypsin inhibitor (which inactivatesplatelets). Plasma was separated by centrifugation (3000×g for 15minutes, twice) to obtain platelet free plasma. The absence of plateletsin the plasma was validated by Coulter counter (platelet count≦1), andflow cytometry (FACS Canto™) using fluorescent beads (1 μm and 2 μm).

The cell free, platelet-free plasma sample (0.5 μL) was centrifuged(20,000× g for 30 minutes), and the supernatant was removed. The pelletobtained was reconstituted with 0.5 mL of 20 mM HEPES/HANK'S/0.05%glucose buffer (pH 7.4) which had been filtered using 0.2 μm pore sizemembrane filter. The sample was washed by vortexing, and centrifuged(20,000× g for 30 minutes). After the final centrifugation, buffer wasdiscarded, and the pellet was reconstituted with 0.5 mL fresh buffer.The sample was vortexed for 1-2 minutes to detach microvesicles from thesides of the tube and to separate microvesicles from each other.

Staining of Blood Microvesicles

The microvesicle preparation was placed into flow cytometry tubes in 50μL aliquots. Antibodies were added, based on the cell or receptor ofinterest, and incubated for 30 minutes. Antibody concentration neededfor optimal staining was determined by experimentation. Anti-CD42a-PEmouse anti-human monoclonal antibodies (GPIX, BD) were used to labelplatelet-derived microvesicles. Anti-CD62e PE mouse anti-humanmonoclonal antibodies (e-selectin, BD) were used to identifyendothelium-derived microvesicles. Anti-VEGFR-1 PE mouse anti-humanmonoclonal antibodies (R&D) were used to label VEGFR-1. Annexin V mouseanti-human monoclonal antibodies (BD) and anti-B48/B100 mouse anti-humanmonoclonal antibodies (AbCam) were used as markers of phospatidylserineand lipid expression. Controls were run for each sample using sameisotype IgG FITC or PE stained samples.

Identification of Blood Microvesicles

Flow cytometry (FACSCanto™) was used to detect microvesicles by size andpositive antibody fluorescence. Gates to define size were set using aninternal standard of 1 μm and 2 μm beads (FIG. 5). For quantification,samples were spiked with a known quantity of beads of 4.2 μm diameter(FIG. 5). All buffers and antibodies were filtered through a 0.2 μm poresize membrane filter to eliminate chemical particles and to reduceinstrument noise.

Separation and Quantification of Microvesicles Based on Staining

The absolute numbers of annexin-V microvesicles were calculated based oncounts of calibration beads. The absolute count of microvesicles equaledthe number of events in the microvesicle gate per number of events inthe calibration bead region as multiplied by the number of beads pertest (spiked known count/test volume). The same calculation was appliedto quantification of microvesicles positive or negative for annexin-V orother cell specific monoclonal antibodies.

Data Analysis

Data were analyzed using Microsoft Excel. The diagnosis of preeclampsiawas made in the presence of hypertension accompanied by proteinuria, asrecommended elsewhere (Am J Obstet Gynecol 183(1): S1-S22 (2000)).Hypertension was defined as blood pressure of 140/90 mmHg; excretion of300 mg of protein or more in a 24-hour urine specimen was considereddiagnostic of significant proteinuria.

Results

Preeclamptic women had median (inter-quartile range) proteinuria (mg/24hour) of 1466 (561-2642). A portion of plasma microvesicles expressedVEGFR-1 in both preeclamptic and normal pregnant women. VEGFR-1 positivemicrovesicles were significantly elevated in preeclamptic as compared tonormal pregnant women. VEGFR-1 positive microvesicles were 30.0(14.3-81.0) microvesicles per liter plasma in preeclamptic women ascompared to 12.0 (8.0-14.0) microvesicles per liter plasma in normalpregnant women (p=0.01 by Wilcoxon rank sum test). There was not astatistically significant difference in total microvesicles per literplasma between the two groups: 327 (289-509) in preeclamptic women vs.333 (232-385) in normal pregnant women (p=0.54 by Wilcoxon rank sumtest).

In summary, the results provided herein indicated that an increasedlevel of VEGFR-1 expressing microvesicles is associated withpreeclampsia in women.

OTHER EMBODIMENTS

It is to be understood that while the invention has been described inconjunction with the detailed description thereof, the foregoingdescription is intended to illustrate and not limit the scope of theinvention, which is defined by the scope of the appended claims. Otheraspects, advantages, and modifications are within the scope of thefollowing claims.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method for avoiding unnecessary treatment ofpreeclampsia, said method comprising: (a) contacting a urine samplecollected from a pregnant human during gestational week 18 to 36 with anantibody under conditions that allow binding of said antibody to apodocyte or a fragment of said podocyte, wherein, when said urine samplecontains podocytes or fragments of said podocytes, antibody complexescomprising said antibody and said podocyte or a fragment of saidpodocyte are formed, (b) detecting an absence of an elevated level ofsaid antibody complexes as compared to corresponding urine levels frompregnant humans lacking preeclampsia, and (c) proceeding with treatmentof said pregnant human in a manner that avoids unnecessary treatment ofpreeclampsia based on the urine levels of said antibody complexesdetected in step (a) in said pregnant human.
 2. The method of claim 1,wherein said antibody is an anti-podocin antibody.
 3. The method ofclaim 1, wherein said antibody is an anti-podocalyxin antibody.
 4. Themethod of claim 1, wherein said antibody is an anti-nephrin antibody. 5.The method of claim 1, wherein said antibody is an anti-synaptopodinantibody.